Multi-functional applications of oriented conductive networks in intelligent sensing, electromagnetic shielding, and thermal management: A review
Download PDF Share Subscribe
logo
All Journals Login

Smart Materials and Devices
  1. Home
  2. Articles
  3. Article

Multi-functional applications of oriented conductive networks in intelligent sensing, electromagnetic shielding, and thermal management: A review

Fei Zhang
*
,
Ulrike Staudinger
,
Marén Gültner
,
Beate Krause
,
Brigitte Voit
*Correspondence to: Fei Zhang, Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V. (IPF), Dresden, SN 01069, Germany. E-mail: fei-zhang1209@ipfdd.de
Smart Mater Devices. 2026;2:202623. 10.70401/smd.2026.0039
Received: April 25, 2026Accepted: July 07, 2026Published: July 09, 2026
Tips Icon
This manuscript is made available in its unedited form to allow early access to the reported findings. Further editing will be completed before final publication. As such, the content may include errors, and standard legal disclaimers are applicable.

Abstract

In the past decades, multi-functional materials have attracted significant attention for applications in electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, thermal management, and intelligent sensing. Extensive efforts have focused on developing conductive composites with enhanced functional performance, increasing evidence indicates that the structural characteristics of conductive networks plays a decisive role in determining material properties. Among various structural engineering strategies, oriented conductive networks have emerged as the highly effective platform for optimizing charge transport, heat transfer, and electromagnetic wave attenuation through the deliberate alignment of functional fillers. Unlike isotropic networks, oriented architectures provide new opportunities for achieving high performance with reduced filler loading by forming anisotropic transport pathways,. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in multi-functional materials based on oriented conductive networks, with particular emphasis on the underlying structure–property relationships governing sensing, EMI shielding, and thermal management performances. The effects of filler characteristics, orientation degree, and structural features on functional properties are critically analyzed. More importantly, this review highlights oriented conductive networks as a universal structural design strategy for multifunctional materials and discusses emerging opportunities associated with advanced fabrication technologies, AI-assisted materials design, and integrated material–structure engineering. Finally, the remaining challenges and future perspectives regarding scalability, structural precision, reliability, and multifunctional integration are discussed to guide the future development of next-generation multifunctional composites.

Keywords

Multi-functional materials, oriented conductive networks, thermal management, intelligent sensors, electromagnetic interference shielding

References

  • 1. Sun Y, Zhang F, Guo L, Zhu Z, Gao X, Feng W, et al. Thermally conductive nanocomposite with silicon carbide nanowire-bridged boron nitride skeleton for multifunctional thermal interface materials. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2025;192:108775.
    [DOI]
  • 2. Zhang H, He Q, Zhang F, Duan Y, Qin M, Feng W, et al. Biomimetic intelligent thermal management materials: From nature-inspired design to machine-learning-driven discovery. Adv Mater. 2025;37(30):e2503140.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 3. Zhang F, Feng Y, Feng W. Three-dimensional interconnected networks for thermally conductive polymer composites: Design, preparation, properties, and mechanisms. Mater Sci Eng R Rep. 2020;142:100580.
    [DOI]
  • 4. Zhang F, Ma PC, Wang J, Zhang Q, Feng W, Zhu Y, et al. Anisotropic conductive networks for multidimensional sensing. Mater Horiz. 2021;8(10):2615-2653.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 5. Liang C, Gu Z, Zhang Y, Ma Z, Qiu H, Gu J, et al. Structural design strategies of polymer matrix composites for electromagnetic interference shielding: A review. Nanomicro Lett. 2021;13(1):181.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 6. Li X, Chen C, Li Z, Yi P, Zou H, Deng G, et al. Inter-skeleton conductive routes tuning multifunctional conductive foam for electromagnetic interference shielding, sensing and thermal management. Nanomicro Lett. 2024;17(1):52.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 7. Yang L, Li C, Pu T, Ruan Y, Guo T. A flexible sandwich-structured composite film for EMI shielding, thermal management, stress sensing and flame retardancy in wearable electronics. Compos Commun. 2025;56:102375.
    [DOI]
  • 8. Zhang Y, Ruan K, Gu J. Flexible sandwich-structured electromagnetic interference shielding nanocomposite films with excellent thermal conductivities. Small. 2021;17(42):2101951.
    [DOI]
  • 9. Narayana KJ, Gupta Burela R. A review of recent research on multifunctional composite materials and structures with their applications. Mater Today Proc. 2018;5(2):5580-5590.
    [DOI]
  • 10. Yin D, Li J, Wang S, Xiu H, Liu G, Huang S, et al. Constructing multi-dimensional alternating layer nested structure for enhancing electromagnetic shielding, thermal management and strain sensing. Chem Eng J. 2024;497:154954.
    [DOI]
  • 11. Krause B, Pötschke P. Electrical and thermal conductivity of polypropylene filled with combinations of carbon fillers. AIP Conf Proc. 2016;1779:040003.
    [DOI]
  • 12. Naji A, Krause B, Pötschke P, Ameli A. Hybrid conductive filler/polycarbonate composites with enhanced electrical and thermal conductivities for bipolar plate applications. Polym Compos. 2019;40(8):3189-3198.
    [DOI]
  • 13. Gültner M, Göldel A, Pötschke P. Tuning the localization of functionalized MWCNTs in SAN/PC blends by a reactive component. Compos Sci Technol. 2011;72(1):41-48.
    [DOI]
  • 14. Tan S, Guo S, Wu Y, Zhang T, Tang J, Ji G, et al. Achieving broadband microwave shielding, thermal management, and smart window in energy-efficient buildings. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;35(8):2415921.
    [DOI]
  • 15. Duan Y, Yu H, Zhang F, Qin M, Feng W. Preparation technologies for polymer composites with high-directional thermal conductivity: A review. Nano Res. 2024;17(11):9796-9814.
    [DOI]
  • 16. Song P, Liu B, Qiu H, Shi X, Cao D, Gu J, et al. MXenes for polymer matrix electromagnetic interference shielding composites: A review. Compos Commun. 2021;24:100653.
    [DOI]
  • 17. He M, Hu J, Yan H, Zhong X, Zhang Y, Liu P, et al. Shape anisotropic chain-like CoNi/polydimethylsiloxane composite films with excellent low-frequency microwave absorption and high thermal conductivity. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;35(18):2316691.
    [DOI]
  • 18. Zhang F, Li C, Zhang Y, Sun Y, Yao X, Guo L, et al. Facile preparation of large-scale expanded graphite/polydimethylsiloxane composites for highly-efficient electromagnetic interference shielding. J Mater Chem A. 2022;10(43):23145-23154.
    [DOI]
  • 19. Zhao B, Hamidinejad M, Wang S, Bai P, Che R, Zhang R, et al. Advances in electromagnetic shielding properties of composite foams. J Mater Chem A. 2021;9(14):8896-8949.
    [DOI]
  • 20. Li C, Yao X, Li D, Zhang F, Chen J, Wu J, et al. Highly stretchable and conductive 3D graphene skeleton/polyacrylamide/LiCl nanocomposite hydrogels for high-performance electromagnetic interference shielding. Carbon. 2025;244:120712.
    [DOI]
  • 21. Weng GM, Li J, Alhabeb M, Karpovich C, Wang H, Lipton J, et al. Layer-by-layer assembly of cross-functional semi-transparent MXene-carbon nanotubes composite films for next-generation electromagnetic interference shielding. Adv Funct Mater. 2018;28(44):1803360.
    [DOI]
  • 22. Song P, Liang C, Wang L, Qiu H, Gu H, Kong J, et al. Obviously improved electromagnetic interference shielding performances for epoxy composites via constructing honeycomb structural reduced graphene oxide. Compos Sci Technol. 2019;181:107698.
    [DOI]
  • 23. Lee JH, Kim J, Liu D, Guo F, Shen X, Zheng Q, et al. Highly aligned, anisotropic carbon nanofiber films for multidirectional strain sensors with exceptional selectivity. Adv Funct Mater. 2019;29(29):1901623.
    [DOI]
  • 24. Shao G, Hanaor DAH, Shen X, Gurlo A. Freeze casting: From low-dimensional building blocks to aligned porous structures: A review of novel materials, methods, and applications. Adv Mater. 2020;32(17):1907176.
    [DOI]
  • 25. Ji T, Feng Y, Qin M, Li S, Zhang F, Lv F, et al. Thermal conductive and flexible silastic composite based on a hierarchical framework of aligned carbon fibers-carbon nanotubes. Carbon. 2018;131:149-159.
    [DOI]
  • 26. Zhang F, Ren D, Zhang Y, Huang L, Sun Y, Wang W, et al. Production of highly-oriented graphite monoliths with high thermal conductivity. Chem Eng J. 2022;431:134102.
    [DOI]
  • 27. Zhang F, Guo L, Shi Y, Jin Z, Cheng Y, Zhang Z, et al. Structural engineering of graphite network for ultra-sensitive and durable strain sensors and strain-controlled switches. Chem Eng J. 2023;452:139664.
    [DOI]
  • 28. Xu Y, Zhang F, Rothemund P, Keplinger C, Xu Z, Li J, et al. Soft reconfigurable logic gates with high-frequency electrical switching. Sci Adv. 2025;11(32):eadx1509.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 29. Guo Y, Ruan K, Shi X, Yang X, Gu J. Factors affecting thermal conductivities of the polymers and polymer composites: A review. Compos Sci Technol. 2020;193:108134.
    [DOI]
  • 30. Guo H, Zhao H, Niu H, Ren Y, Fang H, Fang X, et al. Highly thermally conductive 3D printed graphene filled polymer composites for scalable thermal management applications. ACS Nano. 2021;15(4):6917-6928.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 31. Yang C, Bi H, Wan D, Huang F, Xie X, Jiang M, et al. Direct PECVD growth of vertically erected graphene walls on dielectric substrates as excellent multifunctional electrodes. J Mater Chem A. 2013;1(3):770-775.
    [DOI]
  • 32. Han J, Du G, Gao W, Bai H. An anisotropically high thermal conductive boron nitride/epoxy composite based on nacre-mimetic 3D network. Adv Funct Mater. 2019;29(13):1900412.
    [DOI]
  • 33. Ma L, Lu W. Carbon nanotube film based flexible bi-directional strain sensor for large deformation. Mater Lett. 2020;260:126959.
    [DOI]
  • 34. Nardecchia S, Carriazo D, Ferrer ML, Gutiérrez MC, del Monte F. Three dimensional macroporous architectures and aerogels built of carbon nanotubes and/or graphene: Synthesis and applications. Chem Soc Rev. 2013;42(2):794-830.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 35. Chen H, Roy A, Baek JB, Zhu L, Qu J, Dai L. Controlled growth and modification of vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes for multifunctional applications. Mater Sci Eng R Rep. 2010;70(3-6):63-91.
    [DOI]
  • 36. Song H, Liu J, Liu B, Wu J, Cheng HM, Kang F, et al. Two-dimensional materials for thermal management applications. Joule. 2018;2(3):442-463.
    [DOI]
  • 37. Wei C, Zhang Q, Wang Z, Yang W, Lu H, Huang Z, et al. Recent advances in MXene-based aerogels: Fabrication, performance and application. Adv Funct Mater. 2023;33(9):2211889.
    [DOI]
  • 38. Ning Y, Zeng X, Huang J, Shen ZY, Gao Y, Che R, et al. Multifunctional electromagnetic responsive porous materials synthesized by freeze casting: Principles, progress, and prospects. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;35(6):2414838.
    [DOI]
  • 39. Wegst UGK, Kamm PH, Yin K, García-Moreno F. Freeze casting. Nat Rev Meth Primers. 2024;4(1):28.
    [DOI]
  • 40. Fukushima M, Fujiwara T, Fey T, Kakimoto KI. One-or two-dimensional channel structures and properties of piezoelectric composites via freeze-casting. J Am Ceram Soc. 2017;100(12):5400-5408.
    [DOI]
  • 41. Scotti KL, Dunand DC. Freeze casting–A review of processing, microstructure and properties via the open data repository, FreezeCasting.net. Prog Mater Sci. 2018;94:243-305.
    [DOI]
  • 42. Jiang Z, Zhang F, Feng W. Percolating MXene networks and LDH thermal bridges in 3D hierarchical polyimide aerogels for rapid thermal charging, leakage-resistant solar-thermal phase-change storage. Small. 2026;22(9):e13143.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 43. Han C, Zhang H, Chen Q, Li T, Kong L, Zhao H, et al. A directional piezoelectric sensor based on anisotropic PVDF/MXene hybrid foam enabled by unidirectional freezing. Chem Eng J. 2022;450:138280.
    [DOI]
  • 44. Min P, Li X, Liu P, Liu J, Jia XQ, Li XP, et al. Rational design of soft yet elastic lamellar graphene aerogels via bidirectional freezing for ultrasensitive pressure and bending sensors. Adv Funct Mater. 2021;31(34):2103703.
    [DOI]
  • 45. Wang K, Liu S, Li H, Liu X, Liu Y, Liu H, et al. A controllable salting-out engineering strategy to promote the anisotropic thermal conductivity performances of BNNS@PVA aerogel-based composites by constructing thermal transfer network. Compos Commun. 2025;57:102456.
    [DOI]
  • 46. Zhu C, Chen Z, Zhu R, Sheng N, Rao Z. Vertically aligned Al2O3 fiber framework leading to anisotropically enhanced thermal conductivity of epoxy composites. Adv Eng Mater. 2021;23(9):2100327.
    [DOI]
  • 47. Guo P, Sheng N, Zhu R, Zhu C, Rao Z. Improved anisotropic thermal transfer property of form-stable phase change material supported by 3D bionic porous copper. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng. 2023;11(8):3324-3333.
    [DOI]
  • 48. Qiu F, Xia Y, Wu T, Li S, Xing S, Jiao X, et al. Anisotropic 3D nanofibrous porous material fabrication by a liquid film-assisted gas templating strategy for thermal insulation. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2021;4(12):14136-14145.
    [DOI]
  • 49. Xiao C, Tang Y, Chen L, Zhang X, Zheng K, Tian X, et al. Preparation of highly thermally conductive epoxy resin composites via hollow boron nitride microbeads with segregated structure. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2019;121:330-340.
    [DOI]
  • 50. Pyo S, Lee J, Kim W, Jo E, Kim J. Multi-layered, hierarchical fabric-based tactile sensors with high sensitivity and linearity in ultrawide pressure range. Adv Funct Mater. 2019;29(35):1902484.
    [DOI]
  • 51. Cheng Y, Wang R, Sun J, Gao L. A stretchable and highly sensitive graphene-based fiber for sensing tensile strain, bending, and torsion. Adv Mater. 2015;27(45):7365-7371.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 52. Cai Z, Liu B, Zou X, Cheng HM. Chemical vapor deposition growth and applications of two-dimensional materials and their heterostructures. Chem Rev. 2018;118(13):6091-6133.
    [DOI]
  • 53. He C, Zhao N, Shi C, Liu E, Li J. Fabrication of nanocarbon composites using in situ chemical vapor deposition and their applications. Adv Mater. 2015;27(36):5422-5431.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 54. Guo L, Zhang Z, Sun H, Dai D, Cui J, Li M, et al. Direct formation of wafer-scale single-layer graphene films on the rough surface substrate by PECVD. Carbon. 2018;129:456-461.
    [DOI]
  • 55. Hussain S, Kovacevic E, Berndt J, Santhosh NM, Pattyn C, Dias A, et al. Low-temperature low-power PECVD synthesis of vertically aligned graphene. Nanotechnology. 2020;31(39):395604.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 56. Qian L, Shao Q, Yu Y, Liu W, Wang S, Gao E, et al. Spatially confined CVD growth of high-density semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotube horizontal arrays. Adv Funct Mater. 2022;32(11):2106643.
    [DOI]
  • 57. Zhu L, Xu J, Xiu Y, Sun Y, Hess DW, Wong CP, et al. Growth and electrical characterization of high-aspect-ratio carbon nanotube arrays. Carbon. 2006;44(2):253-258.
    [DOI]
  • 58. Pang J, Bachmatiuk A, Ibrahim I, Fu L, Placha D, Martynkova GS, et al. CVD growth of 1D and 2D sp2 carbon nanomaterials. J Mater Sci. 2016;51(2):640-667.
    [DOI]
  • 59. Zhang F, Feng Y, Qin M, Gao L, Li Z, Zhao F, et al. Stress controllability in thermal and electrical conductivity of 3D elastic graphene-crosslinked carbon nanotube sponge/polyimide nanocomposite. Adv Funct Mater. 2019;29(25):1970173.
    [DOI]
  • 60. Zhang F, Feng Y, Qin M, Ji T, Lv F, Li Z, et al. Stress-sensitive thermally conductive elastic nanocomposite based on interconnected graphite-welded carbon nanotube sponges. Carbon. 2019;145:378-388.
    [DOI]
  • 61. Xu M, Futaba DN, Yumura M, Hata K. Alignment control of carbon nanotube forest from random to nearly perfectly aligned by utilizing the crowding effect. ACS Nano. 2012;6(7):5837-5844.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 62. Cao JJ, Jiang Y, Zhan H, Zhang Y, Wang JN. Carbon dioxide-boosted growth of high-density and vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays on a stainless steel mesh. RSC Adv. 2022;12(53):34740-34745.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 63. Li S, Feng Y, Long P, Qin C, Feng W. The light-switching conductance of an anisotropic azobenzene-based polymer close-packed on horizontally aligned carbon nanotubes. J Mater Chem C. 2017;5(21):5068-5075.
    [DOI]
  • 64. Feng JM, Wang R, Li YL, Zhong XH, Cui L, Guo QJ, et al. One-step fabrication of high quality double-walled carbon nanotube thin films by a chemical vapor deposition process. Carbon. 2010;48(13):3817-3824.
    [DOI]
  • 65. Zhang LX, Sun Z, Qi JL, Shi JM, Hao TD, Feng JC, et al. Understanding the growth mechanism of vertically aligned graphene and control of its wettability. Carbon. 2016;103:339-345.
    [DOI]
  • 66. Ryu S, Lee P, Chou JB, Xu R, Zhao R, Hart AJ, et al. Extremely elastic wearable carbon nanotube fiber strain sensor for monitoring of human motion. ACS Nano. 2015;9(6):5929-5936.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 67. Zhang X, Jiang K, Feng C, Liu P, Zhang L, Kong J, et al. Spinning and processing continuous yarns from 4-inch wafer scale super-aligned carbon nanotube arrays. Adv Mater. 2006;18(12):1505-1510.
    [DOI]
  • 68. Deng B, Liu Z, Peng H. Toward mass production of CVD graphene films. Adv Mater. 2019;31(9):1800996.
    [DOI]
  • 69. Chen Z, Qi Y, Chen X, Zhang Y, Liu Z. Direct CVD growth of graphene on traditional glass: Methods and mechanisms. Adv Mater. 2019;31(9):e1803639.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 70. Liu F, Li P, An H, Peng P, McLean B, Ding F, et al. Achievements and challenges of graphene chemical vapor deposition growth. Adv Funct Mater. 2022;32(42):2203191.
    [DOI]
  • 71. Wu S, Peng S, Han ZJ, Zhu H, Wang CH. Ultrasensitive and stretchable strain sensors based on mazelike vertical graphene network. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018;10(42):36312-36322.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 72. Song X, Liu J, Yu L, Yang J, Fang L, Shi H, et al. Direct versatile PECVD growth of graphene nanowalls on multiple substrates. Mater Lett. 2014;137:25-28.
    [DOI]
  • 73. Huang S, He G, Yang C, Wu J, Guo C, Hang T, et al. Stretchable strain vector sensor based on parallelly aligned vertical graphene. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2019;11(1):1294-1302.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 74. Tumpane J, Karousis N, Tagmatarchis N, Nordén B. Alignment of carbon nanotubes in weak magnetic fields. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2008;47(28):5148-5152.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 75. Smith BW, Benes Z, Luzzi DE, Fischer JE, Walters DA, Casavant MJ, et al. Structural anisotropy of magnetically aligned single wall carbon nanotube films. Appl Phys Lett. 2000;77(5):663-665.
    [DOI]
  • 76. Oliva-Avilés AI, Avilés F, Sosa V. Electrical and piezoresistive properties of multi-walled carbon nanotube/polymer composite films aligned by an electric field. Carbon. 2011;49(9):2989-2997.
    [DOI]
  • 77. Romyen N, Thongyai S, Praserthdam P. Alignment of carbon nanotubes in polyimide under electric and magnetic fields. J Appl Polym Sci. 2012;123(6):3470-3475.
    [DOI]
  • 78. Kimura T, Ago H, Tobita M, Ohshima S, Kyotani M, Yumura M, et al. Polymer composites of carbon nanotubes aligned by a magnetic field. Adv Mater. 2002;14(19):1380-1383.
    [DOI]
  • 79. Lin F, Yang G, Niu C, Wang Y, Zhu Z, Luo H, et al. Planar alignment of graphene sheets by a rotating magnetic field for full exploitation of graphene as a 2D material. Adv Funct Mater. 2018;28(46):1805255.
    [DOI]
  • 80. Fischer JE, Zhou W, Vavro J, Llaguno MC, Guthy C, Haggenmueller R, et al. Magnetically aligned single wall carbon nanotube films: Preferred orientation and anisotropic transport properties. J Appl Phys. 2003;93(4):2157-2163.
    [DOI]
  • 81. Ma B, Xu C, Chi J, Chen J, Zhao C, Liu H, et al. A versatile approach for direct patterning of liquid metal using magnetic field. Adv Funct Mater. 2019;29(28):1901370.
    [DOI]
  • 82. Lin F, Zhu Z, Zhou X, Qiu W, Niu C, Hu J, et al. Orientation control of graphene flakes by magnetic field: Broad device applications of macroscopically aligned graphene. Adv Mater. 2017;29(1):1604453.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 83. Kordás K, Mustonen T, Tóth G, Vähäkangas J, Uusimäki A, Jantunen H, et al. Magnetic-field induced efficient alignment of carbon nanotubes in aqueous solutions. Chem Mater. 2007;19(4):787-791.
    [DOI]
  • 84. Mauter MS, Elimelech M, Osuji CO. Nanocomposites of vertically aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes by magnetic alignment and polymerization of a lyotropic precursor. ACS Nano. 2010;4(11):6651-6658.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 85. Headrick RJ, Tsentalovich DE, Berdegué J, Bengio EA, Liberman L, Kleinerman O, et al. Structure-property relations in carbon nanotube fibers by downscaling solution processing. Adv Mater. 2018;30(9):1591-1596.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 86. Zhao W, Dong J, Li Z, Zhou B, Liu C, Feng Y. Centrifugal inertia-induced directional alignment of AgNW network for preparing transparent electromagnetic interference shielding films with joule heating ability. Adv Sci. 2024;11(38):2406758.
    [DOI]
  • 87. Zhao C, Zhang P, Zhou J, Qi S, Yamauchi Y, Shi R, et al. Layered nanocomposites by shear-flow-induced alignment of nanosheets. Nature. 2020;580(7802):210-215.
    [DOI]
  • 88. Wang Y, Yang R, Shi Z, Zhang L, Shi D, Wang E, et al. Super-elastic graphene ripples for flexible strain sensors. ACS Nano. 2011;5(5):3645-3650.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 89. Li Y, Tian X, Gao SP, Jing L, Li K, Yang H, et al. Reversible crumpling of 2D titanium carbide (MXene) nanocoatings for stretchable electromagnetic shielding and wearable wireless communication. Adv Funct Mater. 2020;30(5):1907451.
    [DOI]
  • 90. Kim JY, Lim J, Jin HM, Kim BH, Jeong SJ, Choi DS, et al. 3D tailored crumpling of block-copolymer lithography on chemically modified graphene. Adv Mater. 2016;28(8):1591-1596.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 91. Kim KK, Hong S, Cho HM, Lee J, Suh YD, Ham J, et al. Highly sensitive and stretchable multidimensional strain sensor with prestrained anisotropic metal nanowire percolation networks. Nano Lett. 2015;15(8):5240-5247.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 92. Park SJ, Kim J, Chu M, Khine M. Flexible piezoresistive pressure sensor using wrinkled carbon nanotube thin films for human physiological signals. Adv Mater Technolog. 2018;3:1700158.
    [DOI]
  • 93. Liu N, Lu Y, Li Z, Zhao H, Yu Q, Huang Y, et al. Smart wrinkled interfaces: Patterning, morphing, and coding of polymer surfaces by dynamic anisotropic wrinkling. Langmuir. 2024;40(36):18837-18856.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 94. Kim JY, Lim J, Jin HM, Kim BH, Jeong SJ, Choi DS, et al. 3D tailored crumpling of block-copolymer lithography on chemically modified graphene. Adv Mater. 2016;28(8):1591-1596.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 95. Chai J, Wang G, Wang G, Shao R, Zhao J, Zhao G, et al. Porous and conductive fiber woven textile for multi-functional protection, personal warmth, and intelligent motion/temperature perception. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;35(10):2416428.
    [DOI]
  • 96. Kaplan M, Krause B, Smolka N, Kuehnert I. Electrical and rheological behavior of melt-spun polyamide 6 via synergistic SWCNT/carbon black networks. Macromol. Eng. 2026;311(2):e00393.
    [DOI]
  • 97. Pötschke P, Andres T, Villmow T, Pegel S, Brünig H, Kobashi K, et al. Liquid sensing properties of fibres prepared by melt spinning from poly(lactic acid) containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Compos Sci Technol. 2010;70(2):343-349.
    [DOI]
  • 98. Kaplan M, Smolka N, Kuehnert I, Krause B. Advanced branched carbon nanotube/carbon black hybrid technologies: Cost-effective fabrication of high-performance conductive polyamide 6 filaments for next-generation smart textile applications. Adv Mater Technolog. 2026;11(3):e01798.
    [DOI]
  • 99. Bautista-Quijano JR, Pötschke P, Brünig H, Heinrich G. Strain sensing, electrical and mechanical properties of polycarbonate/multiwall carbon nanotube monofilament fibers fabricated by melt spinning. Polymer. 2016;82:181-189.
    [DOI]
  • 100. Bautista-Quijano JR, Brünig H, Pötschke P. Improved sensitivity of liquid sensing melt-spun polymer fibers filled with carbon nanoparticles by considering solvent-polymer solubility parameters. Mater Res Express. 2023;10(5):055307.
    [DOI]
  • 101. Kunz K, Krause B, Kretzschmar B, Juhasz L, Kobsch O, Jenschke W, et al. Direction dependent electrical conductivity of polymer/carbon filler composites. Polymers. 2019;11(4):591.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 102. Knapp A, Härtel P, Hermes I, Auernhammer GK, Kuehnert I, Abendroth T, et al. Extruded conductive hybrid-filled polymer films as current conductor foil for bipolar lithium-sulfur battery applications. Adv Compos Hybrid Mater. 2026;9(2):144.
    [DOI]
  • 103. Krause B, Kunz K, Kretzschmar B, Kühnert I, Pötschke P. Effect of filler synergy and cast film extrusion parameters on extrudability and direction-dependent conductivity of PVDF/carbon nanotube/carbon black composites. Polymers. 2020;12(12):2992.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 104. Pang K, Song X, Xu Z, Liu X, Liu Y, Zhong L, et al. Hydroplastic foaming of graphene aerogels and artificially intelligent tactile sensors. Sci Adv. 2020;6(46):eabd4045.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 105. Zhu E, Pang K, Chen Y, Liu S, Liu X, Xu Z, et al. Ultra-stable graphene aerogels for electromagnetic interference shielding. Sci China Mater. 2023;66(3):1106-1113.
    [DOI]
  • 106. Rahimi R, Ochoa M, Yu W, Ziaie B. Highly stretchable and sensitive unidirectional strain sensor via laser carbonization. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2015;7(8):4463-4470.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 107. Wu X, Han Y, Zhang X, Lu C. Spirally structured conductive composites for highly stretchable, robust conductors and sensors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2017;9(27):23007-23016.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 108. Hou H, Dai W, Yan Q, Lv L, Alam FE, Yang M, et al. Graphene size-dependent modulation of graphene frameworks contributing to the superior thermal conductivity of epoxy composites. J Mater Chem A. 2018;6(25):12091-12097.
    [DOI]
  • 109. Yan C, Wang J, Kang W, Cui M, Wang X, Foo CY, et al. Highly stretchable piezoresistive graphene-nanocellulose nanopaper for strain sensors. Adv Mater. 2014;26(13):2022-2027.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 110. Song S, Zhang M, Gong X, Shi S, Fang J, Wang X. Advances in wearable sensors for health management: From advanced materials to intelligent systems. Adv Funct Mater. 2026;36(11):e18767.
    [DOI]
  • 111. Xue K, Shao C, Yu J, Zhang H, Wang B, Ren W, et al. Initiatorless solar photopolymerization of versatile and sustainable eutectogels as multi-response and self-powered sensors for human-computer interface. Adv Funct Mater. 2023;33(51):2305879.
    [DOI]
  • 112. Dang C, Zhang F, Li Y, Jin Z, Cheng Y, Feng Y, et al. Lithium bonds enable small biomass molecule-based ionoelastomers with multiple functions for soft intelligent electronics. Small. 2022;18(20):e2200421.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 113. Kaplan M, Alp E, Borazan İ, Krause B, Pötschke P. Enhanced piezoelectric performance of poly(vinylidene fluoride) nanocomposites with synthesized zinc oxide nanowires and branched carbon nanotubes via melt mixing process. Macromol Mater Eng. 2025;310(9):e00122.
    [DOI]
  • 114. Tang X, Pionteck J, Krause B, Pötschke P, Voit B. Highly tunable piezoresistive behavior of carbon nanotube-containing conductive polymer blend composites prepared from two polymers exhibiting crystallization-induced phase separation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13(36):43333-43347.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 115. Kundu A, Arief I, Mandal S, Meena KK, Krause B, Staudinger U, et al. Elastomeric sensor-triboelectric nanogenerator coupled system for multimodal strain sensing and organic vapor detection. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024;16(39):53083-53097.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 116. Kaplan M, Alp E, Krause B, Pötschke P. Improvement of the piezoresistive behavior of poly (vinylidene fluoride)/carbon nanotube composites by the addition of inorganic semiconductor nanoparticles. Materials. 2024;17(4):774.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 117. Tang X, Pötschke P, Pionteck J, Li Y, Formanek P, Voit B, et al. Tuning the piezoresistive behavior of poly(vinylidene fluoride)/carbon nanotube composites using poly (methyl methacrylate). ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020;12(38):43125-43137.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 118. Nguyen T, Dinh T, Phan HP, Pham TA, Dau VT, Nguyen NT, et al. Advances in ultrasensitive piezoresistive sensors: From conventional to flexible and stretchable applications. Mater Horiz. 2021;8(8):2123-2150.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 119. Wang G, Zheng M, Liu Z, Wang M. Anisotropic piezoresistive sensors made with magnetically induced vertically aligned carbon nanotubes/polydimethylsiloxane. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2023;15(44):51675-51683.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 120. Yin H, Li Y, Tian Z, Li Q, Jiang C, Liang E, et al. Ultra-high sensitivity anisotropic piezoelectric sensors for structural health monitoring and robotic perception. Nanomicro Lett. 2024;17(1):42.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 121. Li D, Wang H, Han Z, Wu Q, Lv X, Zhang Y, et al. Anisotropic structural carbon nanotube aerogels for piezoresistive strain sensors with multidirectional sensitivity. Compos Part B Eng. 2025;291:112028.
    [DOI]
  • 122. Wang W, Zhang T, Fang H, Zhang Z, Peng Z, Wang Z, et al. Structural and dimensional engineering of three-dimensional carbon nanotube/polydimethylsiloxane composite for stretchable sensor. Compos Commun. 2023;44:101755.
    [DOI]
  • 123. Xu Y, Zhang F, Wang H, Cheng A, Li J, Zheng Q, et al. A soft, high-frequency oscillator for autonomous movement of a soft robot. Procedia Comput Sci. 2025;271:294-300.
    [DOI]
  • 124. Xu S, Xu Z, Li D, Cui T, Li X, Yang Y, et al. Recent advances in flexible piezoresistive arrays: Materials, design, and applications. Polymers. 2023;15(12):2699.
    [DOI]
  • 125. Qi XD, Yang JH, Zhang N, Huang T, Zhou ZW, Kühnert I, et al. Selective localization of carbon nanotubes and its effect on the structure and properties of polymer blends. Prog Polym Sci. 2021;123:101471.
    [DOI]
  • 126. Kim KH, Jang NS, Ha SH, Cho JH, Kim JM. Highly sensitive and stretchable resistive strain sensors based on microstructured metal nanowire/elastomer composite films. Small. 2018;14(14):e1704232.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 127. Chen S, Song Y, Ding D, Ling Z, Xu F. Flexible and anisotropic strain sensor based on carbonized crepe paper with aligned cellulose fibers. Adv Funct Mater. 2018;28(42):1802547.
    [DOI]
  • 128. Sui C, Yang Y, Headrick RJ, Pan Z, Wu J, Zhang J, et al. Directional sensing based on flexible aligned carbon nanotube film nanocomposites. Nanoscale. 2018;10(31):14938-14946.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 129. Zhao H, Zhang Y, Bradford PD, Zhou Q, Jia Q, Yuan FG, et al. Carbon nanotube yarn strain sensors. Nanotechnology. 2010;21(30):305502.
    [DOI]
  • 130. Ma L, Yang W, Wang Y, Chen H, Xing Y, Wang J. Multi-dimensional strain sensor based on carbon nanotube film with aligned conductive networks. Compos Sci Technol. 2018;165:190-197.
    [DOI]
  • 131. Mousavi S, Howard D, Zhang F, Leng J, Wang CH. Direct 3D printing of highly anisotropic, flexible, constriction-resistive sensors for multidirectional proprioception in soft robots. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020;12(13):15631-15643.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 132. Zhang H, Liu D, Lee JH, Chen H, Kim E, Shen X, et al. Anisotropic, wrinkled, and crack-bridging structure for ultrasensitive, highly selective multidirectional strain sensors. Nanomicro Lett. 2021;13(1):122.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 133. Liu Y, Wang Z, Song X, Shen X, Wei Y, Hua C, et al. 3D printing-induced hierarchically aligned nanocomposites with exceptional multidirectional strain sensing performance. Small. 2024;20(49):e2404810.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 134. Ji J, Zhang C, Liang Y, Zhang N, Wang J. Anisotropic v-groove/wrinkle hierarchical arrays for multidirectional strain sensors with high sensitivity and exceptional selectivity. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024;16(22):29410-29420.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 135. Wang M, Zhang D, Jiang Y, Zhang G, Li Y, Song D, et al. Highly sensitive anisotropic multidirectional strain sensor through direct-write micro-3D printing ordered microfibers. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2025;17(36):51082-51093.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 136. Hong T, Li H, Xue J, Wen Y, Zhu Z, Gao X, et al. Highly sensitive, stretchable, and transparent multidirectional wearable strain sensors based on patterned vertical graphene array. 2D Mater. 2025;12(2):025006.
    [DOI]
  • 137. Lee J, Pyo S, Kwon DS, Jo E, Kim W, Kim J, et al. Ultrasensitive strain sensor based on separation of overlapped carbon nanotubes. Small. 2019;15(12):e1805120.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 138. Wang C, Pan ZZ, Lv W, Liu B, Wei J, Lv X, et al. A directional strain sensor based on anisotropic microhoneycomb cellulose nanofiber-carbon nanotube hybrid aerogels prepared by unidirectional freeze drying. Small. 2019;15(14):e1805363.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 139. Ha SH, Ha SH, Jeon MB, Cho JH, Kim JM. Highly sensitive and selective multidimensional resistive strain sensors based on a stiffness-variant stretchable substrate. Nanoscale. 2018;10(11):5105-5113.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 140. Xin Y, Zhou J, Tao R, Xu X, Lubineau G. Making a bilateral compression/tension sensor by pre-stretching open-crack networks in carbon nanotube papers. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018;10(39):33507-33515.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 141. Rong Y, Guo H, Zhou X, Wu W, Zhu W, Wang H, et al. Absorption-dominant electromagnetic interference shielding materials: From microstructure to multi-scale assembly. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;35(51):e06746.
    [DOI]
  • 142. Zhao H, Wang J, He M, Li S, Guo H, Kan D, et al. Electromagnetic interference shielding films: Structure design and prospects. Small Methods. 2025;9(5):e2401324.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 143. Biswas S, Muzata TS, Krause B, Rzeczkowski P, Pötschke P, Bose S, et al. Does the type of polymer and carbon nanotube structure control the electromagnetic shielding in melt-mixed polymer nanocomposites? J Compos Sci. 2020;4(1):9.
    [DOI]
  • 144. Sushmita K, Menon AV, Sharma S, Abhyankar AC, Madras G, Bose S, et al. Mechanistic insight into the nature of dopants in graphene derivatives influencing electromagnetic interference shielding properties in hybrid polymer nanocomposites. J Phys Chem C. 2019;123(4):2579-2590.
    [DOI]
  • 145. Zhang Y, Liu A, Tian Y, Tian Y, Qi X, Qiu H, et al. Direct-ink-writing printed aerogels with dynamically reversible thermal management and tunable electromagnetic interference shielding. Adv Mater. 2025;37(35):e2505521.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 146. Anju , Yadav RS, Pötschke P, Pionteck J, Krause B, Kuřitka I, et al. High-performance, lightweight, and flexible thermoplastic polyurethane nanocomposites with Zn2+-substituted CoFe2O4 nanoparticles and reduced graphene oxide as shielding materials against electromagnetic pollution. ACS Omega. 2021;6(42):28098-28118.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 147. Anju , Yadav RS, Pötschke P, Pionteck J, Krause B, Kuřitka I, et al. CuxCo1-xFe2O4 (x = 0.33, 0.67, 1) spinel ferrite nanoparticles based thermoplastic polyurethane nanocomposites with reduced graphene oxide for highly efficient electromagnetic interference shielding. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(5):2610.
    [DOI]
  • 148. VijayKashimatt MG, Vatnalmath M, Auradi V. A review on conductive polymer composites focusing on advancements in electrical conductivity, and electromagnetic shielding capabilities. Polym Compos. 2025;46(18):16507-16537.
    [DOI]
  • 149. Kumar P, Narayan Maiti U, Sikdar A, Kumar Das T, Kumar A, Sudarsan V, et al. Recent advances in polymer and polymer composites for electromagnetic interference shielding: Review and future prospects. Polym Rev. 2019;59(4):687-738.
    [DOI]
  • 150. Gebrekrstos A, Biswas S, Menon AV, Madras G, Pötschke P, Bose S, et al. Multi-layered stack consisting of PVDF nanocomposites with flow-induced oriented MWCNT structure can supress electromagnetic radiation. Compos Part B Eng. 2019;166:749-757.
    [DOI]
  • 151. Gao X, Wang X, Cai J, Zhang Y, Zhang J, Bi S, et al. CNT cluster arrays grown on carbon fiber for excellent green EMI shielding and microwave absorbing. Carbon. 2023;211:118083.
    [DOI]
  • 152. Pawar SP, Rzeczkowski P, Pötschke P, Krause B, Bose S. Does the processing method resulting in different states of an interconnected network of multiwalled carbon nanotubes in polymeric blend nanocomposites affect EMI shielding properties? ACS Omega. 2018;3(5):5771-5782.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 153. Pawar SP, Gandi M, Arief I, Krause B, Pötschke P, Bose S. Graphene derivatives doped with nickel ferrite nanoparticles as excellent microwave absorbers in soft nanocomposites. ChemistrySelect. 2017;2(21):5984-5999.
    [DOI]
  • 154. Ma J, Zhan M, Wang K. Ultralightweight silver nanowires hybrid polyimide composite foams for high-performance electromagnetic interference shielding. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2015;7(1):563-576.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 155. Liao SY, Wang XY, Li XM, Wan YJ, Zhao T, Hu YG, et al. Flexible liquid metal/cellulose nanofiber composites film with excellent thermal reliability for highly efficient and broadband EMI shielding. Chem Eng J. 2021;422:129962.
    [DOI]
  • 156. Shu JC, Cao WQ, Cao MS. Diverse metal–organic framework architectures for electromagnetic absorbers and shielding. Adv Funct Mater. 2021;31(23):2100470.
    [DOI]
  • 157. Yi N, Zhang C, Wang Z, Zheng Z, Zhou J, Shang R, et al. Multi-functional Ti3C2Tx-Silver@Silk nanofiber composites with multi-dimensional heterogeneous structure for versatile wearable electronics. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;35(9):2412307.
    [DOI]
  • 158. Verma R, Thakur P, Chauhan A, Jasrotia R, Thakur A. A review on MXene and its’ composites for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding applications. Carbon. 2023;208:170-190.
    [DOI]
  • 159. Liang X, Sun Q, Zhang X, Hu Z, Liu M, Gu P, et al. Advanced stretchable aerogels and foams for flexible electronics and beyond. Adv Funct Mater. 2024;34(48):2408707.
    [DOI]
  • 160. Isari AA, Ghaffarkhah A, Hashemi SA, Wuttke S, Arjmand M. Structural design for EMI shielding: From underlying mechanisms to common pitfalls. Adv Mater. 2024;36(24):e2310683.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 161. Liu Y, Wang Y, Wu N, Han M, Liu W, Liu J, et al. Diverse structural design strategies of MXene-based macrostructure for high-performance electromagnetic interference shielding. Nanomicro Lett. 2023;15(1):240.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 162. Li R, Ding L, Gao Q, Zhang H, Zeng D, Zhao B, et al. Tuning of anisotropic electrical conductivity and enhancement of EMI shielding of polymer composite foam via CO2-assisted delamination and orientation of MXene. Chem Eng J. 2021;415:128930.
    [DOI]
  • 163. Yu WC, Zhang GQ, Liu YH, Xu L, Yan DX, Huang HD, et al. Selective electromagnetic interference shielding performance and superior mechanical strength of conductive polymer composites with oriented segregated conductive networks. Chem Eng J. 2019;373:556-564.
    [DOI]
  • 164. Yu Z, Dai T, Yuan S, Zou H, Liu P. Electromagnetic interference shielding performance of anisotropic polyimide/graphene composite aerogels. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020;12(27):30990-31001.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 165. Wang L, Ma Z, Zhang Y, Chen L, Cao D, Gu J. Polymer-based EMI shielding composites with 3D conductive networks: A mini-review. SusMat. 2021;1(3):413-431.
    [DOI]
  • 166. Wei Q, Pei S, Qian X, Liu H, Liu Z, Zhang W, et al. Superhigh electromagnetic interference shielding of ultrathin aligned pristine graphene nanosheets film. Adv Mater. 2020;32(14):e1907411.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 167. Zeng Z, Wang C, Siqueira G, Han D, Huch A, Abdolhosseinzadeh S, et al. Nanocellulose-MXene biomimetic aerogels with orientation-tunable electromagnetic interference shielding performance. Adv Sci. 2020;7(15):2000979.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 168. Cheng R, Wang Q, Wang Z, Jing L, Garcia-Caraveo AV, Li Z, et al. Liquid-infused nanostructured composite as a high-performance thermal interface material for effective cooling. Nat Commun. 2025;16(1):794.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 169. Li X, Lin J, Wu J, Liu M, Du P, Xu L, et al. Stretchable and leakage-free liquid metal networks for thermal management. Adv Funct Mater. 2025;35(27):2420839.
    [DOI]
  • 170. Huang C, Qian X, Yang R. Thermal conductivity of polymers and polymer nanocomposites. Mater Sci Eng R Rep. 2018;132:1-22.
    [DOI]
  • 171. Wang Z, Wu Z, Weng L, Ge S, Jiang D, Huang M, et al. A roadmap review of thermally conductive polymer composites: Critical factors, progress, and prospects. Adv Funct Mater. 2023;33(36):2301549.
    [DOI]
  • 172. Song NJ, Chen CM, Lu C, Liu Z, Kong QQ, Cai R. Thermally reduced graphene oxide films as flexible lateral heat spreaders. J Mater Chem A. 2014;2(39):16563-16568.
    [DOI]
  • 173. Xiong K, Yang T, Sun Z, Ma C, Wang J, Ge X, et al. Modified graphene film powder scraps for re-preparation of highly thermally conductive flexible graphite heat spreaders. Carbon. 2024;219:118827.
    [DOI]
  • 174. Tu Z, Xie Z, Zhou Q, He J, Dong Y, Huang C, et al. In-situ polymerization of multifunctional heat-resisting SiC-induced graphene/polyimide bidirectional thermally conductive film for battery thermal management. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2025;199:109178.
    [DOI]
  • 175. Zheng H, He P, Yang S, Ding G. Thermally conductive graphene-based films for high heat flux dissipation. Carbon. 2025;233:119908.
    [DOI]
  • 176. Huang P, Li Y, Yang G, Li ZX, Li YQ, Hu N, et al. Graphene film for thermal management: A review. Nano Mater Sci. 2021;3(1):1-16.
    [DOI]
  • 177. Yan Q, Dai W, Gao J, Tan X, Lv L, Ying J, et al. Ultrahigh-aspect-ratio boron nitride nanosheets leading to superhigh in-plane thermal conductivity of foldable heat spreader. ACS Nano. 2021;15(4):6489-6498.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 178. Renteria JD, Ramirez S, Malekpour H, Alonso B, Centeno A, Zurutuza A, et al. Strongly anisotropic thermal conductivity of free-standing reduced graphene oxide films annealed at high temperature. Adv Funct Mater. 2015;25(29):4664-4672.
    [DOI]
  • 179. Gao Z, Zhang Y, Fu Y, Yuen MMF, Liu J. Thermal chemical vapor deposition grown graphene heat spreader for thermal management of hot spots. Carbon. 2013;61:342-348.
    [DOI]
  • 180. Zhang X, Guo Y, Liu Y, Li Z, Fang W, Peng L, et al. Ultrathick and highly thermally conductive graphene films by self-fusion. Carbon. 2020;167:249-255.
    [DOI]
  • 181. Xin G, Sun H, Hu T, Fard HR, Sun X, Koratkar N, et al. Large-area freestanding graphene paper for superior thermal management. Adv Mater. 2014;26(26):4521-4526.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 182. Li HL, Xiao SN, Yu HL, Xue YH, Yang JH. A review of graphene-based films for heat dissipation. New Carbon Mater. 2021;36(5):897-908.
    [DOI]
  • 183. Peng L, Xu Z, Liu Z, Guo Y, Li P, Gao C, et al. Ultrahigh thermal conductive yet superflexible graphene films. Adv Mater. 2017;29(27):1700589.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 184. Guo S, Chen S, Nkansah A, Zehri A, Murugesan M, Zhang Y, et al. Toward ultrahigh thermal conductivity graphene films. 2D Mater. 2023;10(1):014002.
    [DOI]
  • 185. Wang N, Samani MK, Li H, Dong L, Zhang Z, Su P, et al. Tailoring the thermal and mechanical properties of graphene film by structural engineering. Small. 2018;14(29):1801346.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 186. Dai W, Wang Y, Li M, Chen L, Yan Q, Yu J, et al. 2D materials-based thermal interface materials: structure, properties, and applications. Adv Mater. 2024;36(37):2311335.
    [DOI]
  • 187. Dai W, Ma T, Yan Q, Gao J, Tan X, Lv L, et al. Metal-level thermally conductive yet soft graphene thermal interface materials. ACS Nano. 2019;13(10):11561-11571.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 188. Zhou G, Li L, Lee SY, Zhang F, Xie J, Ye B, et al. Dual-strategy-encapsulated phase change materials with thermal immune functions for efficient energy storage and all-climate battery thermal management. Compos Sci Technol. 2023;243:110256.
    [DOI]
  • 189. Zhang F, Feng Y, Qin M, Gao L, Li Z, Zhao F, et al. Stress controllability in thermal and electrical conductivity of 3D elastic graphene-crosslinked carbon nanotube sponge/polyimide nanocomposite. Adv Funct Mater. 2019;29(25):1901383.
    [DOI]
  • 190. Dou Z, Lei C, Wu K, Yu G. The development of thermal interface materials. Nat Electron. 2025;8:1146-1155.
    [DOI]
  • 191. Luo W, Zhang X, Luo T, Li B, Wei B, Zhang J, et al. A flexible thermal interface material as the heat switch for solid-state cooling. Adv Funct Mater. 2026;36(4):e12421.
    [DOI]
  • 192. Müller MT, Krause B, Kretzschmar B, Jahn I, Pötschke P. Thermal conductivity of hybrid filled HDPE nanocomposites. AIP Conf Proc. 2017;1914:030006.
    [DOI]
  • 193. Feng CP, Yang LY, Yang J, Bai L, Bao RY, Liu ZY, et al. Recent advances in polymer-based thermal interface materials for thermal management: A mini-review. Compos Commun. 2020;22:100528.
    [DOI]
  • 194. Feng CP, Chen LB, Tian GL, Bai L, Bao RY, Liu ZY, et al. Robust polymer-based paper-like thermal interface materials with a through-plane thermal conductivity over 9 Wm-1K-1. Chem Eng J. 2020;392:123784.
    [DOI]
  • 195. Ren D, Zhang F, Sun Y, Liu D, Zheng Q. Silicon carbide-welded boron nitride networks for self-healing flexible thermal interface materials. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2025;17(44):61280-61291.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 196. Zhang F, Sun Y, Guo L, Zhang Y, Liu D, Feng W, et al. Microstructural welding engineering of carbon nanotube/polydimethylsiloxane nanocomposites with improved interfacial thermal transport. Adv Funct Mater. 2024;34(10):2311906.
    [DOI]
  • 197. Krause B, Rzeczkowski P, Pötschke P. Thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity of melt-mixed polypropylene composites containing mixtures of carbon-based fillers. Polymers. 2019;11(6):1073.
    [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
  • 198. Song N, Cao D, Luo X, Wang Q, Ding P, Shi L, et al. Highly thermally conductive polypropylene/graphene composites for thermal management. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2020;135:105912.
    [DOI]
  • 199. Zhang G, Xue S, Chen F, Fu Q. An efficient thermal interface material with anisotropy orientation and high through-plane thermal conductivity. Compos Sci Technol. 2023;231:109784.
    [DOI]
  • 200. Zhang J, Gao J, Yang R, Xu K, Zhang Z, Wang Y, et al. Large-scale fabrication of quasi-isotropic insulating boron nitride films with through-plane thermal conductivity exceeding 10 W m-1 K-1. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2025;196:108993.
    [DOI]
  • 201. Bashir A, Niu H, Maqbool M, Usman A, Lv R, Ashraf Z, et al. A novel thermal interface material composed of vertically aligned boron nitride and graphite films for ultrahigh through-plane thermal conductivity. Small Methods. 2024;8(12):e2301788.
    [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 202. Jin J, Su Y, Guo J, Zhang Z, Peng B, Chen M, et al. Flexible composite films with ultrahigh through-plane thermal conductivity yet low graphene content. Compos Part B Eng. 2024;286:111780.
    [DOI]

© The Author(s) 2026. This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, for any purpose, even commercially, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Publisher’s Note

Science Exploration remains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The views expressed in this article are solely those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions of the Editors or the publisher.

Share And Cite

Science Exploration Style
Zhang F, Staudinger U, Gültner M, Krause B, Voit B. Multi-functional applications of oriented conductive networks in intelligent sensing, electromagnetic shielding, and thermal management: A review. Smart Mater Devices. 2026;2:202623. https://doi.org/10.70401/smd.2026.0039

Submit a Manuscript
Author Instructions
Cite this Article
Export Citation
Article Metrics
0
View
0
Download
Cited
Article Updates
Related Articles
Citation Icon Get citation

Smart Materials and Devices

eISSN 3106-5864
smdjournal@sciexplor.com

Navigation

About the Journal
Editorial Process
Author Instructions
Editorial Board
Editorial Policies
Contact Us

Follow us